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Operation Deep Freeze

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctic</a> expeditions</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

International agreements</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1932 (1932)–1933: <a href="International_Polar_Year" title="International Polar Year">International Polar Year</a></li>

<li>1957 (1957)–1958: <a href="International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">International Geophysical Year</a></li>

<li>1959 (1959)–present: <a href="Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</a></li></ul></td>

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<a href="Belgium" title="Belgium"></a> Belgium</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1897 (1897)–1899: <a href="Belgian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Belgian Antarctic Expedition">Belgian Antarctic Expedition</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"></a> British Empire / Commonwealth</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1898 (1898)–1900: <a href="Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Southern Cross Expedition</a></li>

<li>1901 (1901)–1904: <a href="Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">Scott's first expedition</a></li>

<li>1902 (1902)–1904: <a href="Scottish_National_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Scottish National Antarctic Expedition">Scottish National Antarctic Expedition</a></li>

<li>1907 (1907)–1909: <a href="Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Shackleton's first expedition</a></li>

<li>1910 (1910)–1913: <a href="Terra_Nova_Expedition" title="Terra Nova Expedition">Scott's second expedition</a></li>

<li>1911 (1911)–1914: <a href="Australasian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Australasian Antarctic Expedition">Mawson's first expedition</a></li>

<li>1914 (1914)–1917: <a href="Imperial_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Shackleton's second expedition</a></li>

<li>1921 (1921)–1922: <a href="Shackleton%E2%80%93Rowett_Expedition" title="Shackleton–Rowett Expedition">Shackleton's third expedition</a></li>

<li>1929 (1929)–1931: <a href="British_Australian_and_New_Zealand_Antarctic_Research_Expedition" title="British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition">Mawson's second expedition</a></li>

<li>1934 (1934)–1937: <a href="British_Graham_Land_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="British Graham Land Expedition">Graham Land expedition</a></li>

<li>1943 (1943)–1945: <a href="Operation_Tabarin" title="Operation Tabarin">Operation Tabarin</a></li>

<li>1955 (1955)–1958: <a href="Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a></li></ul></td>

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<a href="Germany" title="Germany"></a> <a href="Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"></a> Germany</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1901 (1901)–1903: <a href="Gauss_expedition" title="Gauss expedition">Drygalski (Gauss) expedition</a></li>

<li>1911 (1911)–1912: <a href="Wilhelm_Filchner" title="Wilhelm Filchner">Filchner expedition</a></li>

<li>1938 (1938)–1939: <a href="New_Swabia" title="New Swabia">New Swabia expedition</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Sweden" title="Sweden"></a> Sweden</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1901 (1901)–1904: <a href="Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Swedish Antarctic Expedition">Swedish Antarctic Expedition</a></li></ul></td>

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<a href="France" title="France"></a> France</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1903 (1903)–1905: <a href="French_Antarctic_Expedition#Third_expedition" title="French Antarctic Expedition">Charcot's first expedition</a></li>

<li>1908 (1908)–1910: <a href="French_Antarctic_Expedition#Fourth_expedition" title="French Antarctic Expedition">Charcot's second expedition</a></li></ul></td>

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<a href="Japan" title="Japan"></a> Japan</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1910 (1910)–1912: <a href="Japanese_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Japanese Antarctic Expedition">Japanese Antarctic Expedition</a></li></ul></td>

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<a href="Norway" title="Norway"></a> Norway</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1910 (1910)–1912: <a href="Amundsen's_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">Amundsen expedition</a></li>

<li>1956 (1956)–1960: <a href="Sixth_Norwegian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition">6th Norwegian Antarctic Expedition</a></li>

<li>1957 (1957)–1958: <a href="Luncke_expedition" title="Luncke expedition">Luncke expedition</a></li></ul></td>

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<a href="United_States" title="United States"></a> United States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1928 (1928)–1930: <a href="Richard_E._Byrd#First_Antarctic_expedition_(1928–1930)" title="Richard E. Byrd">Byrd's first expedition</a></li>

<li>1934 (1934): <a href="Richard_E._Byrd#Second_Antarctic_expedition_(1934)" title="Richard E. Byrd">Byrd's second expedition</a></li>

<li>1939 (1939)–1941: <a href="United_States_Antarctic_Service_Expedition" title="United States Antarctic Service Expedition">United States Antarctic Service Expedition</a></li>

<li>1946 (1946)–1947: <a href="Operation_Highjump" title="Operation Highjump">Operation Highjump</a></li>

<li>1947 (1947)–1948: <a href="Operation_Windmill" title="Operation Windmill">Operation Windmill</a></li>

<li>1947 (1947)–1948: <a href="Ronne_Antarctic_Research_Expedition" title="Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition">Ronne expedition</a></li>

<li>1955 (1955)–1956: <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Operation_Deep_Freeze_I">Operation Deep Freeze I</a></li>

<li>1955 (1955)–Present: </li></ul></td>

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<a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"></a> Soviet Union</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1955 (1955)–1957: <a href="1st_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="1st Soviet Antarctic Expedition">1st Soviet Antarctic Expedition</a></li>

<li>1956 (1956)–1958: <a href="2nd_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition">2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

International</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap">

<ul><li>1949 (1949)–1952: <a href="Norwegian%E2%80%93British%E2%80%93Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition">NBSX (Maudheim Expedition)</a></li></ul></td>

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Operation Deep Freeze is the code name for a series of <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> missions to <a href="Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, beginning with "Operation Deep Freeze I" in 1955–56, followed by "Operation Deep Freeze II", "Operation Deep Freeze III", and so on. (There was an initial operation before <a href="Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Admiral Richard Byrd</a> proposed 'Deep Freeze'). Given the continuing and constant US presence in Antarctica since that date, "Operation Deep Freeze" has come to be used as a general term for US operations in that continent, and in particular for the regular missions to resupply US Antarctic bases, coordinated by the <a href="Military_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the United States">United States military</a>. Task Force 199 was involved.

For a few decades the missions were led by the United States Navy, though the Air National Guard and National Science Foundation are also important parts of the missions. In Antarctica, when the polar dawn starts late in the year things begin warming up and the mission usually runs from late in the year to early the next year before the months of darkness and cold return. During that time bases will over-winter until the next year and Deep Freeze mission.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prior_to_International_Geophysical_Year">Prior to International Geophysical Year</h2></div>

The <a href="U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> already had a record of earlier exploration in Antarctica. As early as 1839, Captain <a href="Charles_Wilkes" title="Charles Wilkes">Charles Wilkes</a> led the <a href="United_States_Exploring_Expedition%2C_1838-1842" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842">first U.S. Naval expedition</a> into Antarctic waters. In 1929, Admiral <a href="Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Richard E. Byrd</a> established a naval base at <a href="Little_America_(exploration_base)" title="Little America (exploration base)">Little America</a> I, led <a href="Richard_Evelyn_Byrd" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Evelyn Byrd">an expedition</a> to explore further inland, and conducted the first flight over the South Pole. From 1934 to 1935, the <a href="Richard_Evelyn_Byrd" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Evelyn Byrd">second Byrd Expedition</a> explored much further inland and also "wintered over". The third Byrd Expedition in 1940 charted the <a href="Ross_Sea" title="Ross Sea">Ross Sea</a>.

Byrd was instrumental in the Navy's <a href="Operation_Highjump" title="Operation Highjump">Operation Highjump</a> after <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> from 1946 to 1947, which charted most of the Antarctic coastline. In 1948, Commander <a href="Finn_Ronne" title="Finn Ronne">Finn Ronne</a> led an expedition that photographed over 450,000 square miles (1.1 million km2) by air. Then in 1954–55, the <a href="Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreaker</a> <a href="USS_Atka_(AGB-3)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Atka (AGB-3)">USS Atka</a> made a scouting expedition for future landing sites and bays.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation_Deep_Freeze_I">Operation Deep Freeze I</h2></div>

The impetus behind Operation Deep Freeze I was the <a href="International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">International Geophysical Year</a> 1957–58. IGY as it was known was a collaborative effort among forty nations to carry out earth science studies from the <a href="North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a> to the <a href="South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a> and at points in between. The <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> along with <a href="New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, and the <a href="U.S.S.R." class="mw-redirect" title="U.S.S.R.">U.S.S.R.</a> agreed to go to the South Pole, the least explored area on Earth. Their goal was to advance world knowledge of Antarctic <a href="Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrography</a> and <a href="Weather" title="Weather">weather systems</a>, <a href="Glacial_motion" title="Glacial motion">glacial movements</a>, and <a href="Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a>.

The <a href="U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> was charged with supporting the U.S. scientists for their portion of the IGY studies. Rear Admiral <a href="Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Richard E. Byrd</a>, a veteran of four previous Antarctic Expeditions, was appointed as officer in charge of the expedition.

In 1955, Task Force 43, commanded by Rear Admiral <a href="George_J._Dufek" title="George J. Dufek">George J. Dufek</a>, was formed to provide logistical support for the expedition.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Operation Deep Freeze I prepared a permanent research station and paved the way for more exhaustive research in later Deep Freeze operations. The expedition transpired over the Antarctic summer of November 1955 to April 1956, and was filmed by the <a href="U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> and <a href="Walt_Disney_Studios_(division)" title="Walt Disney Studios (division)">Walt Disney Studios</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> For having designed the emblem of Task Force 43, <a href="Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a> became an honorary member of the expedition.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

Task Force 43 consisted of the following ships:

<ul><li><a href="USS_Wyandot" title="USS Wyandot">USS Wyandot (AKA-92)</a>, freighter</li>

<li><a href="USS_Arneb" title="USS Arneb">USS Arneb (AKA-56)</a>, freighter</li>

<li><a href="USCGC_Edisto" title="USCGC Edisto">USS Edisto (AGB-2)</a>, ice breaker</li>

<li><a href="USS_Glacier_(AGB-4)" title="USS Glacier (AGB-4)">USS Glacier (AGB-4)</a>, ice breaker</li>

<li><a href="USCGC_Eastwind" title="USCGC Eastwind">USCGC Eastwind (WAGB-279)</a>, ice breaker</li>

<li><a href="USS_Nespelen" title="USS Nespelen">USS Nespelen (AOG-55)</a>, gasoline tanker</li>

<li><a href="USNS_Greenville_Victory" title="USNS Greenville Victory">USNS Greenville Victory (T-AK-237)</a>, <a href="Merchant_marine" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant marine">merchant marine</a> freighter</li>

<li>USS YOG-34, aviation fuel carrier</li>

<li>USS YOG-70, aviation fuel carrier</li></ul>

The ships of the task force were supplemented by a specially trained Navy <a href="Construction_Battalion" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction Battalion">Construction Battalion</a>, formed at the Naval Construction Battalion Center at <a href="Davisville%2C_Rhode_Island" title="Davisville, Rhode Island">Davisville, Rhode Island</a> and several aircraft.

On October 31, 1956, at 8:34 p.m. local time, the first aircraft ever to touch down at the South Pole skied to a halt atop the Antarctic ice sheet at 90 degrees South latitude. The U.S. Navy R4D, was piloted by Lieutenant Commander (LCDR) Conrad C. "Gus" Shinn USN and included officer Frederick Ferrara. Immediately after the plane halted--with engines running to avoid a freeze-up (a practice still followed to this day)--U.S. Navy Adm. George J. Dufek., commander of Operation Deep Freeze, stepped out onto the ice, along with pilot Douglas Cordiner, to plant the stars and stripes at the Pole. They were the first to stand there since Briton <a href="Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a> did more than 40 years before. Norwegian <a href="Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Roald Amundsen</a> had beaten Scott in his race to the Pole. Amundsen's party survived the 800-mile return trip, Scott's did not.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> This flight was one part of the expeditions mounted for the IGY. This was not only the first aircraft to land at the South Pole, it was also the first time that Americans had ever set foot on the South Pole. The aircraft was named Que Sera, Sera after a <a href="Que_Sera%2C_Sera_(Whatever_Will_Be%2C_Will_Be)" title="Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)">popular song</a> and is now on display at the <a href="National_Naval_Aviation_Museum" title="National Naval Aviation Museum">Naval Aviation Museum</a> in <a href="Pensacola%2C_Florida" title="Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola, Florida</a>. This marked the beginning of the establishment of the first permanent base, by airlift, at the South Pole (today known as the <a href="Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station" title="Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a>) to support the International Geophysical Year. It was commissioned on January 1, 1957. The mission's second base, <a href="Byrd_Station" title="Byrd Station">Byrd Station</a>, was a (former) research station in West Antarctica established by the US Navy for Operation Deep Freeze II during the International Geophysical Year.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The original station ("Old Byrd") lasted about four years before it began to collapse under the snow. Construction of a second underground station in a nearby location began in 1960, and it was used until 1972. The station was then converted into a summer-only field camp until it was abandoned in 2004–05. The United States Antarctic Program airfield, built to service Operation Deep Freeze (first mission) was later named Williams Field or Willy Field.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subsequent_developments">Subsequent developments</h2></div>

The Operation Deep Freeze activities were succeeded by "Operation Deep Freeze II", and so on. In 1960, the year of the fifth mission, codenames began to be based on the year (e.g., "Operation Deep Freeze 60").<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

Operation Deep Freeze I (1955-56), Operation Deep Freeze II (1956-57), and Operation Deep Freeze III (57-58), prepared the United States for the start of the IGY on 1 July 1957.<a href="#cite_note-:2-9">[9]</a> The Mobile Construction Battalion for ODF I established Little America base in Kainan Bay and a base at McMurdo, and for ODF II built Byrd and the South Pole Station.<a href="#cite_note-:2-9">[9]</a>

The Coast Guard sometimes participated; among others, the USCGC Westwind (WAGB-281), <a href="USCGC_Northwind_(WAGB-282)" title="USCGC Northwind (WAGB-282)">USCGC Northwind</a>,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> the <a href="USCGC_Polar_Sea" title="USCGC Polar Sea">USCGC Polar Sea</a> and the <a href="USS_Glacier_(AGB-4)" title="USS Glacier (AGB-4)">USCGC Glacier</a> occasionally supported the mission.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The Navy's <a href="VXE-6" title="VXE-6">Antarctic Development Squadron Six</a> had been flying scientific and military missions to <a href="Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and the arctic compound's Williams Field since 1975. The 109th operated ski-equipped <a href="Lockheed_LC-130" title="Lockheed LC-130">LC-130s</a> had been flying <a href="National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> support missions to <a href="Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> since 1988. The official name for the Navy's command in Antarctica was US Naval Support Force Antarctica, (NSFA) Terminal Operations.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

In early 1996, the <a href="National_Guard_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="National Guard of the United States">United States National Guard</a> announced that the <a href="109th_Airlift_Wing" title="109th Airlift Wing">109th Airlift Wing</a> at <a href="Schenectady_County_Airport" title="Schenectady County Airport">Schenectady County Airport</a> in <a href="Scotia%2C_New_York" title="Scotia, New York">Scotia, New York</a> was slated to assume that entire mission from the <a href="United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> in 1999. The Antarctic operation would be fully funded by the National Science Foundation. The 109th expected to add approximately 235 full-time personnel to support that operation. The decision to switch from Naval leadership to National Guard was one of a cost-saving measure due to post cold war budget cuts.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

The possibility of the <a href="Air_National_Guard" title="Air National Guard">Air National Guard</a> assuming operational control of the mission had first emerged in 1988. The 109th Airlift Wing had been notified that, almost overnight, one of the <a href="Distant_Early_Warning_Line" title="Distant Early Warning Line">Distant Early Warning Line</a> (DEW) radar sites that it supported in Greenland was going to be shut down. The other sites would soon follow, and the 109th would be largely out of business because its primary mission had ended. The unit had been informally keeping tabs on Navy LC-130 operations supporting the National Science Foundation in Antarctica. Because of its aging aircraft fleet and extensive depot maintenance period, the United States Navy asked if the 109th could provide limited emergency <a href="Search_and_rescue" title="Search and rescue">search and rescue</a> (SAR) capability for two years to support Operation Deep Freeze, which the Air Guard accepted. At that time, it had no thought of taking over the mission. The 109th believed it to be an exercise in futility for its aircraft to deploy to the Antarctic to merely wait for emergency SAR missions, so it asked if the Navy could help carry cargo to the <a href="South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>. The Navy resisted at first because its procedures and cargo configurations differed from those of the Air Guard, but eventually it agreed. The main mission of the U.S. Navy and Air National Guard <a href="C-130_Hercules" class="mw-redirect" title="C-130 Hercules">C-130s</a> was to airlift fuel and supplies to the National Science Foundation's South Pole Station so that its personnel could survive the isolation of the long Antarctic winter, which lasted from February to October.

An Air National Guard working group had been formed to study the idea in 1990. The following year, a dialog began among the Air National Guard, the <a href="Air_Staff_(United_States)" title="Air Staff (United States)">Air Staff</a>, and the United States Navy. Among other issues, it was difficult at first for the Air Guard to convince the Air Staff to commit long term resources to an area of the world that had not been declared a warfighting region because of international treaties. The Air Guard had supported military operations in <a href="Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and the Arctic (including classified U.S. Navy operations) since the mid-1970s with the ski-equipped C-130s of the <a href="109th_Airlift_Wing" title="109th Airlift Wing">109th Airlift Wing</a>. It convinced Headquarters, <a href="United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> that it was not in the nation's best interest to abandon the capability to achieve quick and reliable air access to both polar regions.

In March 1993, the U.S. Navy hosted a two-day workshop with representatives of the National Science Foundation, Air National Guard, and other interested parties to explore logistics support options for the operation. A draft concept of operations had been prepared by the Air Directorate of the National Guard Bureau in 1993. In February 1996, a commitment was made to transfer the Operation Deep Freeze mission and all <a href="LC-130_Hercules" class="mw-redirect" title="LC-130 Hercules">LC-130H</a> aircraft operating within the <a href="United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">U.S. Department of Defense</a> to the Air National Guard. In September 1996, senior officers from the 109th Airlift Wing briefed the National Guard Bureau on their concept of operations and the status of their preparations to implement Operation Deep Freeze.

Under the transition plan which they had developed, the Air National Guard would continue to augment the United States Navy during the October 1996 – March 1997 operating season for the <a href="United_States_Antarctic_Program" title="United States Antarctic Program">United States Antarctic Program</a>. At the end of the October 1997 – March 1998 season, the Air National Guard would assume command of the program. During the third year of the transition program (October 1998 to March 1999), the U.S. Navy would augment the ANG before the latter took over the entire program the following year. There would be seven LC-130s in theater. They would stage from <a href="Christchurch_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Christchurch International Airport">Christchurch International Airport</a> in <a href="Christchurch" title="Christchurch">Christchurch</a>, New Zealand, to <a href="McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a>, Antarctica. Traditional Guardsmen, technicians, and the cadre of <a href="Active_Guard_Reserve" title="Active Guard Reserve">Active Guard Reservists</a> specifically brought on board to support Operation Deep Freeze would all be involved in the mission. When fully transitioned to the Air National Guard, the 109th Airlift Wing would have ten <a href="Lockheed_LC-130" title="Lockheed LC-130">LC-130s</a> in its inventory. These would include upgrades of four LC-130 aircraft in-service with the unit plus three new aircraft and three that would be transferred from the U.S. Navy. Air National Guard estimates of the savings to be realized by consolidating the operation in the hands of the 109th Airlift Wing ranged from <a href="United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US $</a>5 million to US$15 million a year. The actual transition to Air Guard control began in March 1996.

By 1999, the United States Navy had transferred military support operations for Antarctica over to the United States Air Force and its contractor <a href="Raytheon_Polar_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Raytheon Polar Services">Raytheon Polar Services</a>. Operation Deep Freeze was managed by the <a href="United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">U.S. Air Force</a> and <a href="Air_National_Guard" title="Air National Guard">Air National Guard</a> members of Air National Guard Detachment 13, a subordinate unit which administratively reported directly to the Air National Guard Readiness Center (ANGRC) at <a href="Andrews_Air_Force_Base" title="Andrews Air Force Base">Andrews Air Force Base</a> in <a href="Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, and operationally reported to <a href="United_States_Pacific_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Pacific Command">United States Pacific Command</a> (USPACOM) in <a href="Honolulu%2C_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Honolulu, Hawaii">Honolulu, Hawaii</a>. Upon its deactivation in 2005, the detachment consisted of a full-time officer (Commander) and four full-time non-commissioned officers (Logistics, Communications, Security Forces, and Information Management) which remained in New Zealand year-round.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Operational command now belongs to Commander, Thirteenth Air Force as part of USPACOM. In 2005, through the office of the Secretary of Defense, the commander of U.S. Pacific Command was designated to support the Joint Task Force Support Forces Antarctica, Operation Deep Freeze. CDRUSPACOM delegated this joint operation to the Commander, <a href="United_States_Pacific_Air_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Pacific Air Forces">Pacific Air Forces</a>, who then delegated primary responsibility for execution of the JTF SFA operation to the Commander, <a href="13th_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="13th Air Force">13th Air Force</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incidents">Incidents</h3></div>

<ul><li>30 December 1946, <a href="1946_Antarctica_PBM_Mariner_crash" title="1946 Antarctica PBM Mariner crash">1946 Antarctica PBM Mariner crash</a>. Three Naval aviators were killed when their <a href="Martin_PBM_Mariner" title="Martin PBM Mariner">PBM-5</a> crashed during <a href="Operation_Highjump" title="Operation Highjump">Operation Highjump</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a></li>

<li>22 January 1955. Pilot John P. Moore (<a href="Mount_Moore" title="Mount Moore">Mount Moore</a>) was killed in helicopter crash at <a href="Kainan_Bay" title="Kainan Bay">Kainan Bay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a></li>

<li>6 January 1956. Richard T. Williams (<a href="Williams_Field" title="Williams Field">Williams Field</a>) was killed when the tractor he was driving crashed through the ice after being offloaded from the <a href="USS_Glacier_(AGB-4)" title="USS Glacier (AGB-4)">USS Glacier (AGB-4)</a>, off <a href="Cape_Royds" title="Cape Royds">Cape Royds</a> during Operation Deep Freeze I.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a></li>

<li>5 March 1956. Max R. Kiel (<a href="Kiel_Glacier" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiel Glacier">Kiel Glacier</a>) was swallowed by a 100 foot-deep crevasse while driving a tractor 110 miles east of <a href="Little_America_(exploration_base)" title="Little America (exploration base)">Little America</a>, during Operation Deep Freeze I.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> His body was unable to be recovered.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a></li>

<li>18 October 1956. Three Naval aviators were killed when their <a href="Lockheed_P-2_Neptune" title="Lockheed P-2 Neptune">P2V-2N</a> crashed in a storm at <a href="McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a> during Operation Deep Freeze II.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a></li>

<li>14 January 1957. Ollie B. Bartley (<a href="Bartley_Glacier" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartley Glacier">Bartley Glacier</a>) was killed after falling through ice at <a href="Hut_Point_Peninsula" title="Hut Point Peninsula">Hut Point</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a></li>

<li>4 January 1959. Two Naval aviators were killed when their <a href="De_Havilland_Canada_DHC-3_Otter" title="De Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter">Otter cargo aircraft</a> crashed on takeoff at <a href="Marble_Point" title="Marble Point">Marble Point</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a></li>

<li>2 November 1960. Orlan F. John (<a href="John_Nunatak" title="John Nunatak">John Nunatak</a>) was killed in accidental explosion at <a href="McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a></li>

<li>9 November 1961. Four Naval aviators and a civilian seismologist were killed when their <a href="Lockheed_P-2_Neptune" title="Lockheed P-2 Neptune">P2V Neptune</a> crashed on takeoff from <a href="Wilkes_Station" title="Wilkes Station">Wilkes Station</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a></li>

<li>3 February 1966. Six Naval aviators killed when their DC-3 crashed on landing while participating in Operation Deep Freeze.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></li>

<li>9 December 1987. Two Naval aviators were killed and 9 injured when their Lockheed LC-130 Hercules crashed on landing at an airstrip 860 miles northeast of McMurdo Station.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2></div>

United States civilian and scientific operations on the Antarctic continent are overseen by the <a href="United_States_Antarctic_Program" title="United States Antarctic Program">United States Antarctic Program</a> as well as the National Science Foundation. Military support missions flown from <a href="Christchurch_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Christchurch International Airport">Christchurch International Airport</a> are conducted during the Antarctic summer (late September to early March) each year by The 109th Airlift Wing Scotia New York. The Ski equipped LC-130 Hercules is the backbone of Operation Deep Freeze. <a href="LC-130_Hercules" class="mw-redirect" title="LC-130 Hercules">LC-130 Hercules</a> aircraft provide the logistical movement of cargo to remote operating locations on the continent. These aircraft are augmented by the <a href="United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">United States Coast Guard</a> <a href="Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreaker</a> <a href="USCGC_Polar_Star" title="USCGC Polar Star">USCGC Polar Star</a>, the <a href="Air_Force_Materiel_Command" title="Air Force Materiel Command">Air Force Materiel Command</a>, and the <a href="Military_Sealift_Command" title="Military Sealift Command">Military Sealift Command</a>. The United States Air Force <a href="13th_Air_Expeditionary_Group" title="13th Air Expeditionary Group">13th Air Expeditionary Group</a> deploys to Christchurch, New Zealand during the operational season.

A documentary on the early missions was featured in the documentary film Ice Eagles: An Account of American Aviation in Antarctica, which was released on DVD in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

Lockheed Martin is currently the prime contractor for the National Science Foundation's United States Antarctic Program.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The contract award was announced via a NSF press release on 28 December 2011 after a bid solicitation process of almost four years. Support operations began on 1 April 2012.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The original contract synopsis indicated that the government was contemplating a contract period of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">

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</style>11+1⁄2 years.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

In 2021-2 Operation Deep Freeze brought in 100 personnel and nearly 50 thousand pounds of food by air to McMurdo station.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

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<li><a href="List_of_Antarctic_expeditions" title="List of Antarctic expeditions">List of Antarctic expeditions</a></li>

<li><a href="McMurdo_Sound" title="McMurdo Sound">McMurdo Sound</a></li>

<li><a href="McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_activity_in_the_Antarctic" title="Military activity in the Antarctic">Military activity in the Antarctic</a></li>

<li><a href="Mount_Lisicky" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Lisicky">Mount Lisicky</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Antarctic_Sun" title="The Antarctic Sun">The Antarctic Sun</a>, online newspaper of the U.S. Antarctic Program</li>

<li><a href="United_States_Antarctic_Program" title="United States Antarctic Program">United States Antarctic Program</a></li>

<li><a href="Winter_Quarters_Bay" title="Winter Quarters Bay">Winter Quarters Bay</a></li>

<li><a href="McMurdo_Station_transportation" title="McMurdo Station transportation">McMurdo Station transportation</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navalhistory.org/2013/02/01/february-1-1955-task-force-43-commissioned-to-plan-and-execute-operation-deepfreeze">"February 1, 1955: Task Force 43 Commissioned to Plan and Execute Operation Deepfreeze"</a>. Naval History Blog. February 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a href="Winston_Hibler" title="Winston Hibler">Hibler, Winston</a> (director); Beebe, Lloyd (cameraman); and Jones, Elmo G. (cameraman) (25 Dec 1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfi.se/en-GB/Swedish-film-database/Item/?itemid=70574&type=MOVIE">Seven Cities of Antarctica</a> (Motion picture). <a href="People_%26_Places" title="People & Places">People and Places</a>. Los Angeles, California (USA): <a href="Walt_Disney_Productions" class="mw-redirect" title="Walt Disney Productions">Walt Disney Productions</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/85925436">85925436</a>.</cite> Theatrical release which combines three <a href="List_of_Walt_Disney_anthology_television_series_episodes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Walt Disney anthology television series episodes">Walt Disney anthology television series episodes</a> filmed in Antarctica:

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFDisney1956" class="citation episode cs1"><a href="Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Disney, Walt (host)</a> (12 Sep 1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0908274/?ref_=ttep_ep1">"Antarctica: Past and Present"</a>. <a href="Walt_Disney_anthology_television_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Walt Disney anthology television series">Disneyland</a>. Season 3. Episode 1 [48]. <a href="American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDisney1957" class="citation episode cs1"><a href="Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Disney, Walt (host)</a> (5 Jun 1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0908273/?ref_=ttep_ep26">"Antarctica: Operation Deepfreeze"</a>. <a href="Walt_Disney_anthology_television_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Walt Disney anthology television series">Disneyland</a>. Season 3. Episode 26 [73]. <a href="American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDisney1957" class="citation episode cs1"><a href="Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Disney, Walt (host)</a> (13 Nov 1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0908303/?ref_=ttep_ep9">"To the South Pole for Science"</a>. <a href="Walt_Disney_anthology_television_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Walt Disney anthology television series">Disneyland</a>. Season 4. Episode 9 [82]. <a href="American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a>.</cite></li></ul>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

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<ul><li>Belanger, Dian Olson. Deep Freeze: The United States, the International Geophysical Year, and the Origins of Antarctica's Age of Science. Boulder, Colorado: University Press of Colorado, 2006. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0870818309</bdi> <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/69594000">69594000</a></li>

<li>Dufek, George J. Operation Deep Freeze. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1957. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41818128">41818128</a></li>

<li>Ellery D. Wallwork, Kathryn A. Wilcoxson. Operation Deep Freeze: 50 Years of US Air Force Airlift in Antarctica 1956–2006. Scott Air Force Base: Office of History, Air Mobility Command, 2006. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/156828085">156828085</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGillespie1999" class="citation journal cs1">Gillespie, Noel (November–December 1999). "'Deep Freeze': US Navy Operations in Antarctica 1955–1999, Part One". Air Enthusiast (84): 54–63. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0143-5450">0143-5450</a>.</cite></li>

<li>United States. Antarctic Highlights: Operation Deep Freeze. Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O., 1969. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39250653">39250653</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Operation_Deep_Freeze" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Operation Deep Freeze">Operation Deep Freeze</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mokekPCVdug">Flight to the South Pole: Operation Deep Freeze USAF Film</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uA-1F5NSjsU">Operation Deep Freeze I – United States Navy Photographic Report – MN 8500 (1957)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070211025426/http://www.pacaf.af.mil/units/13thairforce/index.asp">Thirteenth Air Force</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070702181144/http://www.pacaf.af.mil/units/13thairforce/operationdeepfreeze/index.asp">Operation Deep Freeze web site at Pacific Air Forces</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930110124/http://www.odfpersco.net/downloads/odf%20deployment%20guide.pdf">Operation Deep Freeze Deployment Guide</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030324115930/http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/exploration/deepfreeze/deepfreeze17.html">history.navy.mil: Operation Deep Freeze I</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antarctic.homestead.com/hist.html">Operation Deep Freeze, The New Zealand Story</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/2282">Operation Deep Freeze Color Transparencies</a> at Dartmouth College Library</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Ocean</a></li>

<li><a href="Arctic_exploration" title="Arctic exploration">History</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Arctic_expeditions" title="List of Arctic expeditions">Expeditions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_research_stations_in_the_Arctic" title="List of research stations in the Arctic">Research stations</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Farthest_North" title="Farthest North">Farthest North</a> <a href="North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Barentsz</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacob_van_Heemskerck" title="Jacob van Heemskerck">Heemskerck</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Marmaduke" title="Thomas Marmaduke">Marmaduke</a></li>

<li><a href="Joris_Carolus" title="Joris Carolus">Carolus</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Edward_Parry" class="mw-redirect" title="William Edward Parry">Parry</a></li>

<li><a href="North_magnetic_pole" title="North magnetic pole">North magnetic pole</a>

<li><a href="Thomas_Abernethy_(explorer)" title="Thomas Abernethy (explorer)">Abernethy</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_Israel_Hayes" title="Isaac Israel Hayes">Hayes</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Polaris_expedition" title="Polaris expedition">Polaris expedition</a>

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<li><a href="Emil_Bessels" title="Emil Bessels">Bessels</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="British_Arctic_Expedition" title="British Arctic Expedition">British Arctic Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="HMS_Alert_(1856)" title="HMS Alert (1856)">HMS Alert</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Nares" title="George Nares">Nares</a></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Discovery_(1874)" title="HMS Discovery (1874)">HMS Discovery</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Frederick_Stephenson" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Frederick Stephenson">Stephenson</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Hastings_Markham" title="Albert Hastings Markham">Markham</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lady_Franklin_Bay_Expedition" title="Lady Franklin Bay Expedition">Lady Franklin Bay Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adolphus_Greely" title="Adolphus Greely">Greely</a></li>

<li><a href="James_B._Lockwood" title="James B. Lockwood">Lockwood</a></li>

<li><a href="David_L._Brainard" title="David L. Brainard">Brainard</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nansen's_Fram_expedition" title="Nansen's Fram expedition">Nansen's Fram expedition</a>

<li><a href="Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Nansen</a></li>

<li><a href="Hjalmar_Johansen" title="Hjalmar Johansen">Johansen</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)">Jason</a>

<ul><li><a href="Prince_Luigi_Amedeo%2C_Duke_of_the_Abruzzi" title="Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi">Amedeo</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Andr%C3%A9e's_Arctic_balloon_expedition" title="Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition">Andrée's balloon expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Salomon_August_Andr%C3%A9e" title="Salomon August Andrée">S. A. Andrée</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="SS_Roosevelt_(1905)" title="SS Roosevelt (1905)">SS Roosevelt</a>

<ul><li><a href="Robert_Peary" title="Robert Peary">Peary</a></li>

<li><a href="Matthew_Henson" title="Matthew Henson">Henson</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Georgy_Sedov" title="Georgy Sedov">Sedov</a></li>

<li><a href="Norge_(airship)" title="Norge (airship)">Norge</a>

<ul><li><a href="Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li>

<li><a href="Umberto_Nobile" title="Umberto Nobile">Nobile</a></li>

<li><a href="Oscar_Wisting" title="Oscar Wisting">Wisting</a></li>

<li><a href="Hjalmar_Riiser-Larsen" title="Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen">Riiser-Larsen</a></li>

<li><a href="Lincoln_Ellsworth" title="Lincoln Ellsworth">Ellsworth</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Italia_(airship)" title="Italia (airship)">Italia</a></li>

<li><a href="USS_O-12_(SS-73)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS O-12 (SS-73)">Nautilus</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hubert_Wilkins" title="Hubert Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Valery_Chkalov" title="Valery Chkalov">Chkalov</a></li>

<li><a href="Georgy_Baydukov" title="Georgy Baydukov">Baydukov</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Vasilyevich_Belyakov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Vasilyevich Belyakov">Belyakov</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Drifting_ice_station" title="Drifting ice station">Drifting ice stations</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Ivan_Papanin" title="Ivan Papanin">Papanin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyotr_Shirshov" title="Pyotr Shirshov">Shirshov</a></li>

<li><a href="Yevgeny_Fyodorov_(scientist)" title="Yevgeny Fyodorov (scientist)">E. Fyodorov</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Krenkel" title="Ernst Krenkel">Krenkel</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Georgiy_Sedov_(1908_icebreaker)" title="Georgiy Sedov (1908 icebreaker)">Georgiy Sedov</a>

<ul><li><a href="Konstantin_Badygin" title="Konstantin Badygin">Badygin</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_Wiese" title="Vladimir Wiese">Wiese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571)" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS Nautilus</a></li>

<li><a href="USS_Skate_(SSN-578)" title="USS Skate (SSN-578)">USS Skate</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralph_Plaisted" title="Ralph Plaisted">Plaisted</a></li>

<li><a href="Wally_Herbert" title="Wally Herbert">Herbert</a></li>

<li><a href="Arktika_(1972_icebreaker)" title="Arktika (1972 icebreaker)">NS Arktika</a></li>

<li><a href="Barneo" title="Barneo">Barneo</a></li>

<li><a href="Arktika_2007" title="Arktika 2007">Arktika 2007</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mir_(submersible)" title="Mir (submersible)">Mir submersibles</a></li>

<li><a href="Anatoly_Sagalevich" title="Anatoly Sagalevich">Sagalevich</a></li>

<li><a href="Artur_Chilingarov" title="Artur Chilingarov">Chilingarov</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> <a href="Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li>

<li><a href="Brendan_the_Navigator" title="Brendan the Navigator">Brendan</a></li>

<li><a href="Papar" title="Papar">Papar</a></li>

<li><a href="Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Vikings</a></li>

<li><a href="Naddodd" title="Naddodd">Naddodd</a></li>

<li><a href="Gar%C3%B0ar_Svavarsson" title="Garðar Svavarsson">Garðar</a></li>

<li><a href="Ing%C3%B3lfr_Arnarson" title="Ingólfr Arnarson">Ingólfr</a></li>

<li><a href="Norse_colonization_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization of North America</a></li>

<li><a href="Gunnbj%C3%B6rn_Ulfsson" title="Gunnbjörn Ulfsson">Gunnbjörn</a></li>

<li><a href="Sn%C3%A6bj%C3%B6rn_galti" title="Snæbjörn galti">Snæbjörn galti</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_IV's_expeditions_to_Greenland" title="Christian IV's expeditions to Greenland">Christian IV's expeditions</a>

<li><a href="John_Cunningham_(explorer)" title="John Cunningham (explorer)">Cunningham</a></li>

<li><a href="Godske_Lindenov" title="Godske Lindenov">Lindenov</a></li>

<li><a href="Carsten_Richardson" title="Carsten Richardson">C. Richardson</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Danish colonization</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hans_Egede" title="Hans Egede">Egede</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="William_Scoresby" title="William Scoresby">Scoresby</a></li>

<li><a href="Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)">Jason</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Nansen</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Peary" title="Robert Peary">Peary</a></li>

<li><a href="Knud_Rasmussen" title="Knud Rasmussen">Rasmussen</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Northwest_Passage" title="Northwest Passage">Northwest Passage</a> <a href="Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">Cabot</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaspar_Corte-Real" title="Gaspar Corte-Real">G. Corte-Real</a></li>

<li><a href="Miguel_Corte-Real" title="Miguel Corte-Real">M. Corte-Real</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Frobisher" title="Martin Frobisher">Frobisher</a></li>

<li><a href="Humphrey_Gilbert" title="Humphrey Gilbert">Gilbert</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Davis_(explorer)" title="John Davis (explorer)">Davis</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li>

<li><a href="Discovery_(1602_ship)" title="Discovery (1602 ship)">Discovery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Robert_Bylot" title="Robert Bylot">Bylot</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Baffin" title="William Baffin">Baffin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Fyodorov_(navigator)" title="Ivan Fyodorov (navigator)">I. Fyodorov</a></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS Resolution</a>

<li><a href="HMS_Discovery_(1774)" title="HMS Discovery (1774)">HMS Discovery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Charles_Clerke" title="Charles Clerke">Clerke</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Mackenzie_(explorer)" title="Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)">Mackenzie</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_von_Kotzebue" title="Otto von Kotzebue">Kotzebue</a></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Griper_(1813)" title="HMS Griper (1813)">HMS Griper</a>

<ul><li><a href="William_Edward_Parry" class="mw-redirect" title="William Edward Parry">Parry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Hecla_(1815)" title="HMS Hecla (1815)">HMS Hecla</a>

<ul><li><a href="Henry_Parkyns_Hoppner" title="Henry Parkyns Hoppner">Hoppner</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a></li>

<li><a href="Coppermine_expedition" title="Coppermine expedition">Coppermine expedition</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Franklin" title="John Franklin">Franklin</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Warren_Dease" title="Peter Warren Dease">Dease</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Simpson_(explorer)" title="Thomas Simpson (explorer)">Simpson</a></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Blossom_(1806)" title="HMS Blossom (1806)">HMS Blossom</a>

<ul><li><a href="Frederick_William_Beechey" title="Frederick William Beechey">Beechey</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Franklin's_lost_expedition" title="Franklin's lost expedition">Franklin's lost expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS Erebus</a></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS Terror</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Collinson" title="Richard Collinson">Collinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Rae%E2%80%93Richardson_Arctic_expedition" title="Rae–Richardson Arctic expedition">Rae–Richardson expedition</a>

<li><a href="John_Richardson_(naturalist)" title="John Richardson (naturalist)">J. Richardson</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Horatio_Thomas_Austin" title="Horatio Thomas Austin">Austin</a></li>

<li><a href="McClure_Arctic_expedition" title="McClure Arctic expedition">McClure expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="HMS_Investigator_(1848)" title="HMS Investigator (1848)">HMS Investigator</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_McClure" title="Robert McClure">McClure</a></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Resolute_(1850)" title="HMS Resolute (1850)">HMS Resolute</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Kellett" title="Henry Kellett">Kellett</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Belcher" title="Edward Belcher">Belcher</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Kennedy_(explorer)" title="William Kennedy (explorer)">Kennedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Ren%C3%A9_Bellot" title="Joseph René Bellot">Bellot</a></li>

<li><a href="Isabel_(1850_ship)" title="Isabel (1850 ship)">Isabel</a>

<ul><li><a href="Edward_Augustus_Inglefield" title="Edward Augustus Inglefield">Inglefield</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Second_Grinnell_expedition" title="Second Grinnell expedition">2nd Grinnell expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="USS_Advance_(1847)" title="USS Advance (1847)">USS Advance</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Leopold_McClintock" title="Leopold McClintock">McClintock</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="USS_Jeannette_(1878)" title="USS Jeannette (1878)">HMS Pandora</a>

<ul><li><a href="Allen_Young" title="Allen Young">Young</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Knud_Rasmussen" title="Knud Rasmussen">Rasmussen</a></li>

<li><a href="Last_voyage_of_the_Karluk" title="Last voyage of the Karluk">Karluk</a>

<ul><li><a href="Vilhjalmur_Stefansson" title="Vilhjalmur Stefansson">Stefansson</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Bartlett_(explorer)" title="Robert Bartlett (explorer)">Bartlett</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Henry_Larsen_(explorer)" title="Henry Larsen (explorer)">H. Larsen</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="David_Scott_Cowper" title="David Scott Cowper">Cowper</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Northern_Sea_Route" title="Northern Sea Route">North East Passage</a> <a href="Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Russian Arctic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pomors" title="Pomors">Pomors</a></li>

<li><a href="Koch_(boat)" title="Koch (boat)">Koch boats</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugh_Willoughby" title="Hugh Willoughby">Willoughby</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Chancellor" title="Richard Chancellor">Chancellor</a></li>

<li><a href="Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Barentsz</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacob_van_Heemskerck" title="Jacob van Heemskerck">Heemskerck</a></li>

<li><a href="Mangazeya" title="Mangazeya">Mangazeya</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonas_Poole" title="Jonas Poole">Poole</a></li>

<li><a href="Siberian_Cossacks" title="Siberian Cossacks">Siberian Cossacks</a></li>

<li><a href="Ilya_Perfilyev" title="Ilya Perfilyev">Perfilyev</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Stadukhin" title="Mikhail Stadukhin">Stadukhin</a></li>

<li><a href="Semyon_Dezhnev" title="Semyon Dezhnev">Dezhnev</a></li>

<li><a href="Fedot_Alekseyevich_Popov" title="Fedot Alekseyevich Popov">Popov</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurbat_Ivanov" title="Kurbat Ivanov">Ivanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Merkury_Vagin" title="Merkury Vagin">Vagin</a></li>

<li><a href="Yakov_Permyakov" title="Yakov Permyakov">Permyakov</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Northern_Expedition" title="Great Northern Expedition">Great Northern Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Vitus_Bering" title="Vitus Bering">Bering</a></li>

<li><a href="Aleksei_Chirikov" title="Aleksei Chirikov">Chirikov</a></li>

<li><a href="Stepan_Malygin" title="Stepan Malygin">Malygin</a></li>

<li><a href="Dmitry_Ovtsyn" title="Dmitry Ovtsyn">Ovtsyn</a></li>

<li><a href="Fyodor_Minin" title="Fyodor Minin">Minin</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasili_Pronchishchev" title="Vasili Pronchishchev">V. Pronchishchev</a></li>

<li><a href="Maria_Pronchishcheva" title="Maria Pronchishcheva">M. Pronchishcheva</a></li>

<li><a href="Semyon_Chelyuskin" title="Semyon Chelyuskin">Chelyuskin</a></li>

<li><a href="Khariton_Laptev" title="Khariton Laptev">Kh. Laptev</a></li>

<li><a href="Dmitry_Laptev" title="Dmitry Laptev">D. Laptev</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vasily_Chichagov" title="Vasily Chichagov">Chichagov</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Lyakhov" title="Ivan Lyakhov">Lyakhov</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Billings" title="Joseph Billings">Billings</a></li>

<li><a href="Yakov_Sannikov" title="Yakov Sannikov">Sannikov</a></li>

<li><a href="Matvei_Gedenshtrom" title="Matvei Gedenshtrom">Gedenshtrom</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferdinand_von_Wrangel" title="Ferdinand von Wrangel">Wrangel</a></li>

<li><a href="Fyodor_Matyushkin" title="Fyodor Matyushkin">Matyushkin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyotr_Anjou" title="Pyotr Anjou">Anjou</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Benjamin_von_L%C3%BCtke" title="Friedrich Benjamin von Lütke">Litke</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Lavrov" title="Mikhail Lavrov">Lavrov</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyotr_Pakhtusov" title="Pyotr Pakhtusov">Pakhtusov</a></li>

<li><a href="Avgust_Tsivolko" title="Avgust Tsivolko">Tsivolko</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_von_Middendorff" title="Alexander von Middendorff">Middendorff</a></li>

<li><a href="Austro-Hungarian_North_Pole_expedition" title="Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition">Austro-Hungarian Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Karl_Weyprecht" title="Karl Weyprecht">Weyprecht</a></li>

<li><a href="Julius_von_Payer" title="Julius von Payer">Payer</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vega_Expedition" title="Vega Expedition">Vega Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adolf_Erik_Nordenski%C3%B6ld" title="Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld">A. E. Nordenskiöld</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_Palander" title="Louis Palander">Palander</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Jeannette_expedition" title="Jeannette expedition">Jeannette expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="USS_Jeannette_(1878)" title="USS Jeannette (1878)">USS Jeannette</a></li>

<li><a href="George_W._Melville" title="George W. Melville">Melville</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Yermak_(1898_icebreaker)" title="Yermak (1898 icebreaker)">Yermak</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stepan_Makarov" title="Stepan Makarov">Makarov</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Zarya_(polar_ship)" title="Zarya (polar ship)">Zarya</a>

<li><a href="Nikolai_Kolomeitsev" title="Nikolai Kolomeitsev">Kolomeitsev</a></li>

<li><a href="Fyodor_Matisen" title="Fyodor Matisen">Matisen</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Kolchak</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Georgy_Sedov" title="Georgy Sedov">Sedov</a></li>

<li><a href="Rusanov_expedition" title="Rusanov expedition">Rusanov expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Vladimir_Rusanov" title="Vladimir Rusanov">Rusanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Kuchin" title="Alexander Kuchin">Kuchin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Brusilov_expedition" title="Brusilov expedition">Brusilov expedition</a>

<li><a href="Georgy_Brusilov" title="Georgy Brusilov">Brusilov</a></li>

<li><a href="Valerian_Albanov" title="Valerian Albanov">Albanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Konrad" title="Alexander Konrad">Konrad</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_Wiese" title="Vladimir Wiese">Wiese</a></li>

<li><a href="Jan_Nag%C3%B3rski" title="Jan Nagórski">Nagórski</a></li>

<li><a href="Taymyr_(1909_icebreaker)" title="Taymyr (1909 icebreaker)">Taymyr</a> / <a href="Vaygach_(1909_icebreaker)" title="Vaygach (1909 icebreaker)">Vaygach</a>

<ul><li><a href="Boris_Vilkitsky" title="Boris Vilkitsky">Vilkitsky</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Rudolf_Samoylovich" title="Rudolf Samoylovich">Samoylovich</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nikifor_Begichev" title="Nikifor Begichev">Begichev</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolay_Urvantsev" title="Nikolay Urvantsev">Urvantsev</a></li>

<li><a href="Sadko_(1913_icebreaker)" title="Sadko (1913 icebreaker)">Sadko</a>

<ul><li><a href="Georgy_Ushakov" title="Georgy Ushakov">Ushakov</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chief_Directorate_of_the_Northern_Sea_Route" title="Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route">Glavsevmorput</a>

<ul><li><a href="Otto_Schmidt" title="Otto Schmidt">Schmidt</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aviaarktika" title="Aviaarktika">Aviaarktika</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mark_Shevelev" title="Mark Shevelev">Shevelev</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="A._Sibiryakov_(icebreaker)" title="A. Sibiryakov (icebreaker)">A. Sibiryakov</a>

<ul><li><a href="Vladimir_Voronin_(captain)" title="Vladimir Voronin (captain)">Voronin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="SS_Chelyuskin" title="SS Chelyuskin">Chelyuskin</a></li>

<li><a href="Krassin_(1916_icebreaker)" title="Krassin (1916 icebreaker)">Krassin</a></li>

<li><a href="Yakov_Gakkel" title="Yakov Gakkel">Gakkel</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear-powered_icebreaker" title="Nuclear-powered icebreaker">Nuclear-powered icebreakers</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lenin_(1957_icebreaker)" title="Lenin (1957 icebreaker)">Lenin</a></li>

<li><a href="Arktika-class_icebreaker" title="Arktika-class icebreaker">Arktika-class</a> <a href="Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreaker</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctic21" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Antarctic_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic exploration">Antarctic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Continent_*_History_*_Expeditions520">

<ul><li><a href="Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Continent</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Antarctica" title="History of Antarctica">History</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Antarctic_expeditions" title="List of Antarctic expeditions">Expeditions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anthony_de_la_Roch%C3%A9" title="Anthony de la Roché">Roché</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Baptiste_Charles_Bouvet_de_Lozier" title="Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier">Bouvet</a></li>

<li><a href="Yves-Joseph_de_Kerguelen-Tr%C3%A9marec" title="Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec">Kerguelen</a></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS Resolution</a>

<li><a href="HMS_Adventure_(1771)" title="HMS Adventure (1771)">HMS Adventure</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tobias_Furneaux" title="Tobias Furneaux">Furneaux</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="William_Smith_(mariner)" title="William Smith (mariner)">Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="San_Telmo_(Spanish_ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="San Telmo (Spanish ship)">San Telmo</a></li>

<li><a href="Vostok_(sloop-of-war)" title="Vostok (sloop-of-war)">Vostok</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen" title="Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen">Bellingshausen</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mirny_(sloop-of-war)" title="Mirny (sloop-of-war)">Mirny</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mikhail_Lazarev" title="Mikhail Lazarev">Lazarev</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Bransfield" title="Edward Bransfield">Bransfield</a></li>

<li><a href="Nathaniel_Palmer" title="Nathaniel Palmer">Palmer</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Davis_(sealer)" title="John Davis (sealer)">Davis</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Weddell" title="James Weddell">Weddell</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Morrell" title="Benjamin Morrell">Morrell</a></li>

<li><a href="French_ship_Astrolabe_(1811)" title="French ship Astrolabe (1811)">Astrolabe</a>

<ul><li><a href="Jules_Dumont_d'Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">Dumont d'Urville</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Exploring_Expedition" title="United States Exploring Expedition">United States Exploring Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="USS_Vincennes_(1826)" title="USS Vincennes (1826)">USS Vincennes</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Wilkes" title="Charles Wilkes">Wilkes</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="USS_Porpoise_(1836)" title="USS Porpoise (1836)">USS Porpoise</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cadwalader_Ringgold" title="Cadwalader Ringgold">Ringgold</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ross_expedition" title="Ross expedition">Ross expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS Erebus</a> (<a href="James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Abernethy_(explorer)" title="Thomas Abernethy (explorer)">Abernethy</a>)</li>

<li><a href="HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS Terror</a> (<a href="Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a>)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mercator_Cooper" title="Mercator Cooper">Cooper</a></li>

<li><a href="Challenger_expedition" title="Challenger expedition">Challenger expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="HMS_Challenger_(1858)" title="HMS Challenger (1858)">HMS Challenger</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Nares" title="George Nares">Nares</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Murray_(oceanographer)" title="John Murray (oceanographer)">Murray</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)">Jason</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carl_Anton_Larsen" title="Carl Anton Larsen">C. A. Larsen</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Belgian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Belgian Antarctic Expedition">Belgian Antarctic Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="RV_Belgica_(1884)" title="RV Belgica (1884)">Belgica</a></li>

<li><a href="Adrien_de_Gerlache" title="Adrien de Gerlache">de Gerlache</a></li>

<li><a href="Georges_Lecointe_(explorer)" title="Georges Lecointe (explorer)">Lecointe</a></li>

<li><a href="Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li>

<li><a href="Henryk_Arctowski" title="Henryk Arctowski">Arctowski</a></li>

<li><a href="Emil_Racovi%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Emil Racoviță">Racoviță</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoni_Boles%C5%82aw_Dobrowolski" title="Antoni Bolesław Dobrowolski">Dobrowolski</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Southern Cross</a>

<ul><li><a href="SS_Southern_Cross_(1886)" title="SS Southern Cross (1886)">Southern Cross</a></li>

<li><a href="Carsten_Borchgrevink" title="Carsten Borchgrevink">Borchgrevink</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">Discovery</a>

<ul><li><a href="RRS_Discovery" title="RRS Discovery">Discovery</a></li>

<li><a href="Discovery_Hut" title="Discovery Hut">Discovery Hut</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gauss_expedition" title="Gauss expedition">Gauss</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gauss_(ship)" title="Gauss (ship)">Gauss</a></li>

<li><a href="Erich_von_Drygalski" title="Erich von Drygalski">Drygalski</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Swedish Antarctic Expedition">Swedish Antarctic Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Antarctic_(ship)" title="Antarctic (ship)">Antarctic</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Nordenskj%C3%B6ld" title="Otto Nordenskjöld">O. Nordenskjöld</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Anton_Larsen" title="Carl Anton Larsen">C. A. Larsen</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Scottish_National_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Scottish National Antarctic Expedition">Scottish Antarctic Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="William_Speirs_Bruce" title="William Speirs Bruce">Bruce</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotia_(barque)" title="Scotia (barque)">Scotia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Orcadas_Base" title="Orcadas Base">Orcadas Base</a></li>

<li><a href="Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Nimrod Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nimrod_(1867_ship)" title="Nimrod (1867 ship)">Nimrod</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="French_Antarctic_Expedition" title="French Antarctic Expedition">French Antarctic Expeditions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pourquoi-Pas_(1908)" title="Pourquoi-Pas (1908)">Pourquoi-Pas</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Baptiste_Charcot" title="Jean-Baptiste Charcot">Charcot</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Japanese Antarctic Expedition">Japanese Antarctic Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nobu_Shirase" title="Nobu Shirase">Shirase</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Amundsen's_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">Amundsen's South Pole expedition</a>

<li><a href="Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li>

<li><a href="Framheim" title="Framheim">Framheim</a></li>

<li><a href="Polheim" title="Polheim">Polheim</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Terra_Nova_Expedition" title="Terra Nova Expedition">Terra Nova</a>

<ul><li><a href="Terra_Nova_(ship)" title="Terra Nova (ship)">Terra Nova</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Scott</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Wilson_(explorer)" title="Edward Wilson (explorer)">Wilson</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Evans%2C_1st_Baron_Mountevans" title="Edward Evans, 1st Baron Mountevans">E. R. Evans</a></li>

<li><a href="Tom_Crean_(explorer)" title="Tom Crean (explorer)">Crean</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Lashly" title="William Lashly">Lashly</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Filchner" title="Wilhelm Filchner">Filchner</a></li>

<li><a href="Australasian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Australasian Antarctic Expedition">Australasian Antarctic Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="SY_Aurora" title="SY Aurora">SY Aurora</a></li>

<li><a href="Douglas_Mawson" title="Douglas Mawson">Mawson</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Far_Eastern_Party" title="Far Eastern Party">Far Eastern Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperial_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Endurance_(1912_ship)" title="Endurance (1912 ship)">Endurance</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Shackleton</a></li>

<li><a href="Voyage_of_the_James_Caird" title="Voyage of the James Caird">James Caird</a></li>

<li><a href="Ross_Sea_party" title="Ross Sea party">Ross Sea party</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aeneas_Mackintosh" title="Aeneas Mackintosh">Mackintosh</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shackleton%E2%80%93Rowett_Expedition" title="Shackleton–Rowett Expedition">Shackleton–Rowett Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Quest_(ship)" title="Quest (ship)">Quest</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="International_Polar_Year" title="International Polar Year">IPY</a> · <a href="International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">IGY</a> <a href="Research_stations_in_Antarctica" title="Research stations in Antarctica">Modern research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lars_Christensen" title="Lars Christensen">Christensen</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Australian_and_New_Zealand_Antarctic_Research_Expedition" title="British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition">BANZARE</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="John_Rymill" title="John Rymill">Rymill</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="New_Swabia" title="New Swabia">New Swabia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Alfred_Ritscher" title="Alfred Ritscher">Ritscher</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Tabarin" title="Operation Tabarin">Operation Tabarin</a>

<li><a href="Operation_Highjump" title="Operation Highjump">Operation Highjump</a></li>

<li><a href="Captain_Arturo_Prat_Base" title="Captain Arturo Prat Base">Captain Arturo Prat Base</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Antarctic_Survey" title="British Antarctic Survey">British Antarctic Survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Windmill" title="Operation Windmill">Operation Windmill</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gerald_Ketchum" title="Gerald Ketchum">Ketchum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ronne_Antarctic_Research_Expedition" title="Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition">Ronne Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Finn_Ronne" title="Finn Ronne">F. Ronne</a></li>

<li><a href="Jackie_Ronne" title="Jackie Ronne">E. Ronne</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_Schlossbach" title="Isaac Schlossbach">Schlossbach</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Hillary</a></li>

<li><a href="Vivian_Fuchs" title="Vivian Fuchs">V. Fuchs</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Soviet Antarctic Expedition">Soviet Antarctic Expeditions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mikhail_Somov" title="Mikhail Somov">Somov</a></li>

<li><a href="Maria_Klenova" title="Maria Klenova">Klenova</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirny_Station" title="Mirny Station">Mirny</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Alexey_Tryoshnikov" title="Alexey Tryoshnikov">Tryoshnikov</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Yevgeny_Tolstikov" title="Yevgeny Tolstikov">Tolstikov</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</a></li>

<li><a href="Transglobe_Expedition" title="Transglobe Expedition">Transglobe Expedition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ranulph_Fiennes" title="Ranulph Fiennes">Fiennes</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_R._Burton" title="Charles R. Burton">Burton</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lake_Vostok" title="Lake Vostok">Lake Vostok</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrey_Kapitsa" title="Andrey Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Farthest_South" title="Farthest South">Farthest South</a> <a href="South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS Resolution</a>

<li><a href="HMS_Adventure_(1771)" title="HMS Adventure (1771)">HMS Adventure</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tobias_Furneaux" title="Tobias Furneaux">Furneaux</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="James_Weddell" title="James Weddell">Weddell</a></li>

<li><a href="HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS Erebus</a>

<li><a href="HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS Terror</a>

<ul><li><a href="Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Southern Cross</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carsten_Borchgrevink" title="Carsten Borchgrevink">Borchgrevink</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">Discovery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Michael_Barne" title="Michael Barne">Barne</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Nimrod</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Shackleton</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Marshall" title="Eric Marshall">Marshall</a></li>

<li><a href="Jameson_Adams" title="Jameson Adams">Adams</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="South_magnetic_pole" title="South magnetic pole">South magnetic pole</a>

<ul><li><a href="Douglas_Mawson" title="Douglas Mawson">Mawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Edgeworth_David" title="Edgeworth David">David</a></li>

<li><a href="Alistair_Mackay" title="Alistair Mackay">Mackay</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Amundsen's_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">Amundsen's South Pole expedition</a>

<li><a href="Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li>

<li><a href="Olav_Bjaaland" title="Olav Bjaaland">Bjaaland</a></li>

<li><a href="Helmer_Hanssen" title="Helmer Hanssen">Helmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Sverre_Hassel" title="Sverre Hassel">Hassel</a></li>

<li><a href="Oscar_Wisting" title="Oscar Wisting">Wisting</a></li>

<li><a href="Polheim" title="Polheim">Polheim</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Terra_Nova_Expedition" title="Terra Nova Expedition">Terra Nova</a>

<ul><li><a href="Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Scott</a></li>

<li><a href="Edgar_Evans" title="Edgar Evans">E. Evans</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawrence_Oates" title="Lawrence Oates">Oates</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Wilson_(explorer)" title="Edward Wilson (explorer)">Wilson</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Robertson_Bowers" title="Henry Robertson Bowers">Bowers</a></li>

<li><a href="Apsley_Cherry-Garrard" title="Apsley Cherry-Garrard">Cherry-Garrard</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bernt_Balchen" title="Bernt Balchen">Balchen</a></li>

<li><a href="Ashley_Chadbourne_McKinley" title="Ashley Chadbourne McKinley">McKinley</a></li>

<li><a href="George_J._Dufek" title="George J. Dufek">Dufek</a></li>

<li><a href="Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station" title="Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Hillary</a></li>

<li><a href="Vivian_Fuchs" title="Vivian Fuchs">V. Fuchs</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Vostok_Station" title="Vostok Station">Vostok Station</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pole_of_inaccessibility" title="Pole of inaccessibility">Pole of inaccessibility</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pole_of_Inaccessibility_research_station" title="Pole of Inaccessibility research station">Pole of Inaccessibility research station</a></li>

<li><a href="Yevgeny_Tolstikov" title="Yevgeny Tolstikov">Tolstikov</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Albert_P._Crary" title="Albert P. Crary">Crary</a></li>

<li><a href="Arved_Fuchs" title="Arved Fuchs">A. Fuchs</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinhold_Messner" title="Reinhold Messner">Messner</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1756995#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata596" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1756995#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata596" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/228550794">VIAF</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2015066426">United States</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10643213">NARA</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-25" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Operation_Deep_Freeze&oldid=1302375238">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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